October Offerings: Calmet's 18th-Century Vampires

 [image: a promotional still for the 1994 film Interview with the Vampire]

Although popular culture associates vampire hunts with older time periods, the belief and fear in vampires existed well into the 18th century in some corners of the globe. There were several documented instances of mass "vampire panics" during this period, including an almost ten year vampire craze centered in countries throughout the Hapsburg empire. Corpses suspected of being vampires were dug up, examined, beheaded and even burned, all due to the suspicion that they were reanimated corpses who returned to torment the living.

Antoine Augustin Calmet (1672-1757) was a French monk who published, among his many philosophical and ecclesiastical writings, what is now an intriguingly peculiar work: Dissertations sur les apparitions des anges, des démons et des esprits, et sur les revenants et vampires de Hongrie, de Bohême, de Moravie et de Silésie (translated: Dissertations on the Apparitions of Angels, of Demons and of Spirits, and on Revenants or Vampires of Hungary, of Bohemia, of Moravia and of Silesia).

Calmet's work is notable because it was an extensive study dedicated primarily to these Hungarian and other Eastern European vampires. Calmet's intention was to explore the possibility of the vampires through base scientific, philosophical, and religious points of view.

To quote 'Dissertations sur les apparitions':

"I undertake to treat here on the matter of the revenans or vampires of Hungary, Moravia, Silesia, and Poland, at the risk of being criticised however I may discuss it; those who believe them to be true, will accuse me of rashness and presumption, for having raised a doubt on the subject, or even of having denied their existence and reality; others will blame me for having employed my time in discussing this matter which is considered as frivolous and useless by many sensible people. 

Whatever may be thought of it, I shall be pleased with myself for having sounded a question which appeared to me important in a religious point of view. For if the return of vampires is real, it is of import to defend it, and prove it; and if it is illusory, it is of consequence to the interests of religion to undeceive those who believe in its truth, and destroy an error which may produce dangerous effects."

Although Calmet's book covers multiple types of vampires, it was the Hungarian concept which seemed to take the strongest hold over Europe. Calmet described the 'Hungary' vampires as thus:

"The revenants of Hungary, or vampires, which form the principal object of this dissertation, are men who have been dead a considerable time, sometimes more, sometimes less; who leave their tombs, and come and disturb the living, sucking their blood, appearing to them, making a racket at their doors, and in their houses, and lastly, often causing their death. They are named vampires, or oupires, which signifies, they say, in Sclavonic, a leech. The only way to be delivered from their haunting, is to disinter them, cut off their head, impale them, burn them, or pierce their heart."

Although some contemporaries took Calmet's work to mean that he believed in the existence of vampires, the work seems mostly skeptical to me. Calmet repeatedly offers natural explanations for various "vampire" signs, such as people being buried alive resulting in "corpses" that bleed or scream when removed; hair and nail growth being due to built-up 'humors' in the body which cause them to grow for a short time after death;  and undecayed corpses simply being something that happens sometime, due to the manner of death or the manner of burial. He also offers an interesting religious perspective when delving into the idea of reanimated corpses, which he says can only be the work of either God, Satan or otherwise demonic forces.

In 1755, Maria Theresa sent Gerard van Swieten, one of her personal physicians, to investigate the vampire cases. He published a report titled Abhandlung des Daseyns der Gespenster (Discourse on the Existence of Ghosts) which offered scientific and natural explanations behind what people perceived as signs of vampire activity. After his report, Maria Theresa issued a ban on staking corpses, digging them up and beheading or burning them, and other acts which were associated with vampire hunts. Her decrees were soon mimicked by other monarchs, more or less ending the vampire paranoia of the Age of Enlightenment.

The full text of 'Dissertations on the Apparitions of Angels, of Demons and of Spirits, and on Revenants or Vampires' can be read in English at Project Gutenburg.

An unusual miniature depicting Maria Theresa using a switch on one of her daughters

  credit: National Museum in Warsaw

This unusual miniature by an unknown artist, circa 1750, depicts Maria Theresa disciplining one of her daughters with a switch. I would guess that the daughter in question may be Anna, Christina or Elisabeth based on her daughter's ages in 1750. Corporal punishment was certainly not unusual in the time period, but I was very surprised to see a miniature of Maria Theresa herself administering it!

As for why the daughter is being punished so, it looks like she was caught playing with the doll in the bottom-left center rather than doing her needlework like the other daughters in the painting. Minus the infant of course, who is instead dutifully watching her sisters work.

One would imagine that the empress herself commissioned this work.

Illustrations from 'One Heart and Many Crowns: The Life of Empress Maria Theresa' by Brigitte Hamann

Ein Herz und viele Kronen: Das Leben der Kaiserin Maria Theresia (One Heart and Many Crowns: The Life of Empress Maria Theresa) by Brigitte Hamann is a German children's book about Maria Theresa of Austria.

The illustrations in the book are by Rolf Rettich, who has illustrated several children's books in Germany. I wanted to share some selected illustrations from the book that I have scanned, which I think have a lovely older charm to them.

The front and back of the book

A young Maria Theresa

 

 

Maria Theresa grieving her father

 

Maria Theresa and some of her children. Inspired by this portrait.

Maria Theresa in mourning for her husband

 

'All depends on the right beginning for the day...'

Although Marie Antoinette was not extensively prepared for her life as the dauphine of France--the fast-track tutoring she received in French, history, etc., was more like an 18th century cram session than a proper education-- Maria Theresa did not neglect to write her daughter 'rules to be read every month,' which contained advice and instruction intended to help Marie Antoinette adjust to her new role. Part of this advice included instruction on how Marie Antoinette should begin her day, immediately after waking:

'... When you wake up, you will immediately upon arising go through your morning prayers on your knees and read some religious text, even if it is only for six or seven minutes, without concerning yourself about anything else or speaking to anyone. All depends on the right beginning for the day and the intention with which you begin it, for it may change even indifferent actions into good, praiseworthy ones.' [translation: Olivier Bernier, Secrets of Marie Antoinette]

It does not seem that Marie Antoinette followed this advice too strictly--she writes in a later letter, also dated 1770, that she says her morning prayers after she has been dressed.

Even More Costumes from the Devonshire Costume Ball of 1897

Last month, I made a post about the elaborate "Marie Antoinette" costume worn by Frances Evelyn, countess of Warwick, to the extravagant Devonshire costume ball of 1897. But Frances--popularly known as Daisy--was not the only fashionable attendee to chose a figure from the world of Marie Antoinette. Here are a few of the more sumptuous, rich and glittering costumes that brought a little 18th century into the Devonshire ball.

 image: Emily Theresa, Baroness Ampthill, as the princesse de Lamballe

credit: ©V&A Lafayette Negative Archive

Emily Theresa, Baroness Ampthill, was the Lady of the Bedchamber to Queen Victoria from 1885 to 1901. She chose to don the guise of the Princesse de Lamballe, the murdered friend and confidante of Marie Antoinette. Perhaps her choice was inspired by her own loyalty to her sovereign, Queen Victoria? Her costume was created by Alias of London, and was described in The Echo's report of the elaborte event as a "...brocade of blue and gold, underdress of blue satin trimmed with real Louis XV lace. Coiffure poudre, with feathers and diamonds."

image: Evelyn Elizabeth Forbes as Elisabeth Christine of Austria
credit: ©V&A Lafayette Negative Archive

Evelyn Elizabeth Forbes, later Mrs. William Dodge James, as Elisabeth Christine of Austria. Elisabeth Christine, who married Archduke Karl of Austria in 1708, was the mother of the future Maria Theresa. Evelyn's gown was described in The Court Journal as a "...costume of stiff silver tissue, through which glimmered an underdress of antique cerise taffeta. The reproduction was quite a chef-d'oeuvre; the long pointed corsage being enhanced by priceless point lace entwined with roses in palest pink; those flowers, in various sizes, were scattered over the entire toilette and gave to it a charming pre-Raphaelite effect."

 

image: Georgian Elizabeth, Countess Howe, as Queen Marie Leczinska
credit: ©V&A Lafayette Negative Archive 

Georgiana Elizabeth, Countess Howe, chose Queen Marie Leczinska, the consort of Louis XV, for her costume. Marie Leczinska, a devout Catholic, was the longest serving queen consort of France.

 

image: Theresa Susey Helen as Maria Theresa

credit: ©V&A Lafayette Negative Archive 

Theresa Susey Helen, Marchioness of Londonderry, chose the incomparable Maria Theresa of Austria for the ball. Her costume, described in The Queen, was a glittering marvel: "...gown of richest cream satin, copied from a picture in South Kensington Museum, beautifully embroidered in shades of gold and pearls. Stomacher of magnificent diamonds, with ropes of pearls festooned on each side. Train of rich cream acanthus leaf brocade, fastened on the left shoulder with a huge diamond buckle, and at the waist with another, and edged with thick silver cord. Necklace of pear shaped pearls, with another diamond necklace above, and a diamond crown." Theresa also wore the famous Londonderry Tiara, which used real diamonds, pearls and other jewels. 

 

The Devonshire costume ball of 1897 was a veritable "who's who" of London society in the 19th century. Ladies and gentlemen alike wanted to make a fashionable splash that would surely guarantee them a spot--and a long paragraph--in the weekly society papers. Diamonds, pearls, rich fabrics and gowns that cost a fortune were the rule--not the exception!

 

If you were transported into the elegant heights of 19th century high society, what figure would you choose for the Devonshire costume ball? 

 

 

A letter from Marie Antoinette to Maria Theresa: Louis XVI is innoculated against smallpox

 image: Louis XVI being innoculated, from Versailles: Countdown to Revolution

image credit: tiny-librarian 

After the death of Louis XV, it was decided that the king and several other members of the royal family would undergo a smallpox innoculation to help protect themselves from the same disease. After her husband underwent the procedure, Marie Antoinette wrote to her mother:

Marie Antoinette to her mother, Maria Theresa, 27 June 1774: 

... the King, my brothers, and the comtesse d'Artois were inoculated [against smallpox] on Saturday; since then they have missed taking a walk at least two or three times a day. The King had a rather high fever for three days; on the day before yesterday the eruption started and the fever went down so that it is now quite gone. He will not have many pustules, but he has some very remarkable ones on his nose, on the wrists, and chest; they are already beginning to turn white.

[The doctors] have made four small incisions; these little openings are suppurating properly, which showed the doctors that the inoculation was completely successful. 

Book Recommendations: Maria Theresa

Just a few quick recommendations for books about Maria Theresa.

Maria Theresa by Edward Crankshaw

A book that might be better described as the "Times of Maria Theresa" than a strict biography, Crankshaw delved into the Vienna archives to give readers a look into the social and political worlds behind the only woman to rule the Habsburg lands.

Empress Maria Theresa: The Earlier Years by Robert Pick

Pick's biographical study on Maria Theresa presents her significant history through a parrellel of her personal life and the actions taken during her early reign.

Empress Maria Theresa and the Politics of Habsburg Imperial Art by Micheal Yonan

Maria Theresa played a pivitol role in the development of artistic culture in the 18th century. She used artistic culture - such as paintings, gardens, sculptures and decorative objects - both as means to strengthen her multiple social roles as monarch, mother, wife and woman and to strengthen her position as the first female Habsburg ruler. By examining Maria Theresa's patronage and support of the arts, Yonan "demonstrates how women, art, and power interrelated in an unusual historical situation in which power was legitimated in women's terms."

The Emancipation of the Austrian Peasant, 1740-1798 by Edith Murr Link
The serf reforms initiated by Maria Theresa led to an 'emancipation' in the lives of the regular Austrian people. Link's work vividly describes the lives of the peasant in Austria before, during and after the reforms of Maria Theresa.